Key Articles 2

Key articles relative to quantum consciousness

1.) Mind-Like Universe - based on Paul Davies's 'Universes Galore' - explores possible integration of mind into the physical universe

2.) A quantum theory of the origin of life on Earth

3.) Quantum entanglement and K+ Ion Channels - Gustav Bernroider - Theory of quantum consciousness based on ion channels

4.) Wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems - Gregory Engels - Best evidence to date for quantum processing in biological tisuues.

5.) Taming the quanta - Martin Plenio - Relates to the Gregory Engel paper

6.) Quantum entanglement in photosynthetic light harvesting complexes - Sarovar, M. et al - Further evidence for quantum features in photosynthetic proteins

7.) The Ascent of Life - Paul Davies - Discussion of possible quantum involvement in biological tissues

1.)

Mind-Like Universe

Based on Paul Davies's 'Universes Galore' - In: Universe or Multiverse, Ed. Carr, B. (2007) ISBN 978-0-521-84841-1 hardback

In discussing the currently fashionable multiverse theory, Davies argues that it is not valid to simply propose that the inflationary phase of the early universe produced bubble universes, of which one happens to support organic life. Random production of universes is argued to be capable of producing paradoxes, for instance a finite universe with an infinite number of different spatial regions. To prevent this, he claims that it is necessary to have a 'law of laws' to allow only parameters that give rise to logically consistent universes. This in turn creates the requirement to explain where 'the law of laws', which appears to be a rather fine-tuned affair, came from.

Davies is particularly critical of those versions of the multiverse idea with an infinite number of universes, allowing all possible outcomes. This is argued to permit some universes with miraculous events and transcendent beings. In this respect, the infinite type of multiverse is claimed to do no better than intelligent design. The infinite multiverse would also include simulated universes, like those in the film 'Matrix'. In this case, the inhabitants of the simulated worlds are considered to be in the same relation to the designers of the programme, as the inhabitants of an intelligent design universe are to their designer.

In the last part of his paper, Davies tries to develop an explanation for a universe that supports organic life, but does not stem from either a multiverse or intelligent design. He suggests that the apparent trend in our universe from simple and mindless to complex and mental is law-like. He suggests that this law-like trend seen in organic life could also be applied to cosmology. He concedes that doing this would allow some element of teleology into physics.

Davies goes on to comment on the possible significance of cellular automaton models, where an array of pixels or cells that can be either on or off is driven by an update rule based on the neighbouring cells. Computer simulations of the evolution of this type of system are seen to progress from simple and random initial inputs towards a state of organised complexity.

Davies suggests that life, mind, the physical law and universes are part of a self-supporting, self-consistent universe loop. He notes that mathematics, which is seen as a product of the recently evolved human mind, can describe the laws of physics. It is suggested that a universe with our particular physical laws permits the existence of brains or computers that can output the mathematics describing these laws, thus closing the loop.

Non-computable & uncreated
This is as far as Davies takes us. However, it might be helpful to speculate further beyond where he has taken us. From the point of view of consciousness studies, Davies's idea is interesting to the extent to which it brings mind into the physical structure of the universe. In locating consciousness at a fundamental level, this look to be possibly compatible with quantum consciousness ideas, such as those of Bohm and Penrose

The scientific community have something of a phobia of God (probably envisaged as an old man with a long white beard sculpting the laws of physics onto tablets of stone at the top of Mount Sinai) having any involvement in the beginning of the universe. This can in turn create a sort of fundamentalism that forbids rational discussion of any more modest proposition as to how the universe came to be fine tuned.

Two aspects of the fine-tuning problem are worth considering. Something has to be uncreated, if we are to avoid an infinite regress. Even a quantum fluctuation in empty space implies some law-like type of vacuum, as opposed to nothing at all.

The other aspect is the vexed question of the abscence of mind from physics, and what some people would argue to be the failure of neuroscience to come up with a plausible explanation of consciousness.

With respect to these problems, it might be worth examining Penrose's notably unpopular idea of a form of non-computability as the basis of consciousness or mind. Intuitively, the notion that there might be a similarity between the non-computable and the uncreated seems worth pursuing. Both these concepts lie outside the normal cause-and-effect of an algorithm-based deterministic universe, and together might be suggested as suitable candidates to derive the laws of physics from nothing. The Big Bang need not be more designed or intention-driven than something mind-like/non-computable breaking out of the pre-existing void. The universe is fine tuned to allow structured development, but with considerable openess as to how this might develop, and none of the baggage of an old man with a long white beard, still around to intervene in subsequent developments.

The non-computable beginning could be argued to be much simpler than the multiverse, which in any case looks suspiciously contrived to get rid of intelligent design and rescue string theory from its problems at a single stroke.

2.)

A Quantum theory of the origin of life on Earth

Zeeya Merali (Based on Jonjoe McFadden)

New Scientist: 8th December 2007

This recent article in the New Scientist revives a long-established idea that the origin of life on Earth could derive from a quantum process. The first to suggest this appears to have been Schrodinger in his 1944 book, 'What is Life? The idea is relaunched by Jonjoe McFadden of the University of Surrey UK, who has also proposed the idea of an electromagnetic field as a substrata of consciousness.

The proposal is in many ways the mirror image of the proposals for quantum consciousness. The quantum process is suggested to provide an explanation for something that macroscopic science has failed to explain, and the main argument against the quantum is the same as in the case of consciousness, that is that decoherence in the conditions involved would be far too quick for quantum coherence to be relevant. As with the quantum consciousness idea, proponents of the quantum view have argued for possible shielding of the quantum processes.

The origin of life is not as hard a problem as consciousness, but it has certainly proved difficult. The idea that life arose from some primordial soup of molecules is inherently plausible. The difficulty arises in getting the molecules to combine in the right order. The simplest self-replicating structure is estimated to require 165 base-pair molecules placed in the right order, and the odds against getting the this order is 4^165, a number said to be greater than the number of electrons in the universe. Of course, if nature made enough, tries for long enough it should get there eventually. However, life on Earth appeared quite soon after the planet became at all suitable for it, making the 4^165 chance a bit improbable.

McFadden proposes that a form of quantum computing arose in the primordial conditions allowing a 'search' of all the possible ordering of the molecules, and leading to the discovery of a sequence that self-replicated. Some support is given to his idea by the suggestion that the speed at which nucleotide bases are matched up when cells split requires quantum processes.

As with quantum consciousness, the main problem for the proposal is the speed at which quantum decoherence would be expected to occur in the type of conditions that would allow the origin of life. However, two other researchers, Asoke Mitra and Garge Mitra-Delmotte have suggested how quantum processes could have been shielded, in a manner rather akin to Hameroff's idea of quantum processes being shielded within the microtubule. They focus on sub-sea vents that have been a favourite location for the origin of life in recent years. Another scientist, Michael Russell at the University of Glasgow had already shown that the necessary molecules could react with iron sulphide found close to the vents. Mitra and Mitra-Delmotte argue that chambers found near sub-sea vents could shield quantum processes. Magnetic fields generated by the iron sulphide are suggested to protect the quantum states of the necessary molecules. The Mitras point out that magnetic fields are used in an analogous manner in proto-type quantum computers, in order to maintain the entanglement of particles used as qubits. The idea is suggested testable by means of existing technology.

Substantiation of the idea would not in itself appear to prove that consciousness is explained at the quantum level. However, if quantum processes were seen to have been involved in the origin of life, that would seem to be an inherent plausibility that the adaptive advantages of the speed of quantum search processes would have been incorporated into living organisms.

3.)

Quantum entanglement of K+ Ions, multiple channel states & the role of noise in the brain

Bernroider, G. & Roy, S. (2005)

International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) Vol. 5841

Gustav Bernroider of Salzburg University has proposed that quantum coherence and entanglement in the ion channels of neurons underlies information processing in the brain and ultimately consciousness (1&2.).

Ion channels are a crucial component in the axonal spiking/synaptic firing model of neuronal signalling and information processing. The axonal signal starts from the body of the neuron and proceeds down the axon, by means of a fluctuation in the difference in electrical potential across the membrane that forms the exterior of the axon. The membrane is formed by a double layer of lipids. The ion channels consist of protein molecules inserted through the lipid bi-layer. The axon fires when sodium (Na+) ions flow in through one set of ion channels, and subsequently returns to its resting state when potassium (K+) ions flow out through another set of ion channels. This process continues down the length of the axon until it reaches the synapse, which it causes to fire, and thus communicate with other neurons. Ion channels are thus a key mechanism in the brain's signalling and information processing.

Bernroider bases his theory on recent studies of ion channels. These have been made possible by advances in high-resolution atomic-level spectroscopy and accompanying molecular dynamics simulations. His theory was principally developed in a 2005 paper with co-author Sisir Roy (1.). In this work, they draw particularly on the work of the MacKinnon group, and on studies of the potassium (K+) channel, especially the closed state of this channel. (3-20.)

The functioning of the K+ channel occurs in two stages, firstly, the selection of K+ ions in preference to any other species of ion, and secondly voltage-gating that controls the flow of these favoured K+ ions. The authors say that the traditional understanding of both functions has been altered by the recent studies. In its closed state, the channel is now seen to stabilise three K+ ions, two in the permeation filter of the ion channel and one in a water cavity to the intracellular side of this permeation path. In the case of the channel's voltage gating, the electrical charges involved, which were previously thought to act independently of the surrounding proteins and lipids, are now seen to be coupled to these proteins and lipids, and are thus involved in the gating process.

Atomic-level spectroscopy has revealed the detailed structure of the K+ channel in its closed state. The filter region of the channel has a framework of five sets of four oxygen atoms, which are each part of the carboxyl group of an amino-acid molecule in the surrounding protein. These are referred to as binding pockets, involving eight oxygen atoms in total. Both ions in the channel oscillate between two configurations (1).

Bernroider and Roy's calculations lead them to claim that ion permeation can only be understood at the quantum level. Taking this as an initial assumption, they go on to ask whether the resulting model of the ion channel can be related to logic states. Their calculations suggest that the K+ ions and the carboxyl atoms of the binding pockets are two quantum-entangled sub-systems, and they equate this to a quantum computational mapping. The K+ ions that are destined to be expelled from the channel could encode information about the state of the oxygen atoms in the axon membrane (1.).

In a later paper, presented at the Quantum Mind 2007 conference (2.), Bernroider proposed that different ion channels could be non-locally entangled, thus proposing a quantum process over an extended area of the axon. Given the importance of the ion channels in brain functioning, this model would give quantum coherence and non-locality in the axon membrane an integral role in the brain's signalling and information processing.

Further to this, Bernroider and Roy have pointed out a similarity between the structure of the K+ ion channel and some recent proposals for building quantum computers, in which ions are held in microscopic traps (20-27.).

The authors argue that their model is well protected against decoherence, which has always been the most cogent criticism of quantum consciousness proposals. In particular, they claim that Tegmark's calculations do not apply to their model (28.). The authors agree that for ions moving freely in water, Tegmark's coherence time of 10^20 seconds would apply. However, they argue that the situation of the ions held in the permeation filter of the ion channel is markedly different, with a temperature about half the prevailing level for the brain, and the ions protected from decoherence by the binding pockets and the adjoining water cavity (1).

A New Theory of Quantum Consciousness?
It may be debatable as to whether Bernroider's proposals amount to a new theory of quantum consciousness. In a paper in Neuroquantology in 2003 (29.), Bernroider appeared to favour David Bohm's concept of an underlying implicate order, from which arises the explicate order of classical physics that we experience in everyday life. However, Bernroider and Roy's 2005 paper and Bernroider's extension of this at the 2007 conference propose a new system of quantum coherence in the brain that is distinct from any of the earlier quantum consciousness models.

Bernroider's theory could potentially be a vehicle for transfering consciousness from the implicate into the explicate order of David Bohm. Bernroider differs from Penrose and Hameroff's Orch OR model in his emphasis of the axons and membranes, as opposed to the dendrites and the cytoskeleton. However, there are similarities between the two models in that both of them propose quantum coherence, non-locality and subsequent wave function collapse linked to the brain's macroscopic information processing activity. As it stands, Bernroider's proposals only deal with information processing in the brain rather than consciousness as such. However, it appears possible that wave function collpase in the ion channels might link to Penrose's proposed geometry of spacetime, just as readily as wave function collapse in the cytoskeleton.

Bernroider's theory is distinct from all earlier quantum consciousness theories in locating its mechanism in structures that are central to mainstream theories of the brain's information processing and production of consciousness. If future experimentation were to substantiate the Bernroider proposals, this would involve a revolution in neuroscience of the most profound kind.

4.)

Gregory Engel et al

Dept. of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley

Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems

Nature, vol 446, pp. 782-786, 12 April 2007

This paper points out that photosynthetic complexes are adapted to capture light, and put its energy into long-term storage. This process has normally been described in classical terms, and quantum coherence has been to a good extent ignored in the traditional analysis. However, the possibility of quantum coherence has been predicted, and in this paper the authors describe evidence for long-lived quantum coherence being involved in energy transfer within photosynthetic systems. The wavelike process is thought to account for the efficiency of the sytem, because it allows the sampling of large areas of phase space, in order to find the most efficient path, or to transfering energy to the area in the lowest energy state.

The Engel et al experiment involved electronic spectroscopy to observe the evolution of electronic coherence. Quantum beating was found to last for 660 fs, which was much more than the 250 fs estimated for conventional models. Conventional models had assumed that quantum coherence would be rapidly destroyed, and had therfore not factored it into their models of photosynthetic systems.

By contrast, the authors conclude that long-lived quantum coherence must play an active role in photosynthetic systems. A quantum coherent system allows sampling in order to direct energy to the lowest energy state. The system is viewed as performing a quantum computation, in which it senses many states simultaneously and from these selects the correct answer. This is seen as analogous to Grover's algorithm, allowing both the discovery of the lowest energy state and the transfer of coherence. This is more efficent than any classical search engine. Protein is seen as providing the structure in which coherence can be preserved and at the same time modulating the coherence as a result of the local dielectric environment.

5.)

Taming the Quanta

Martin Plenio, Imperial College London

Lecture to the Royal Society, 14th October 2008

Martin Plenio’s lecture of October 14 2008 has provided an interesting footnote to the Engel paper. In photosynthesis, the chlorophyll molecule is 98% efficient in transporting energy. Energy is absorbed in the form of light. The molecule supports excitation and oscillation of electrons, and allows the exploration of pathways in the molecule. A classical system would only be 60-70% efficient in transporting energy, but the chlorophyll molecule is 98% efficient. The molecule is at 300 degrees Kelvin or room temperature. Given the high temperature, Plenio thinks that there is likely to be some dephasing of the light quanta, but contrary to the normal view that this would be the end of any quantum processing, he considers that the efficiency of energy transportation could actually be enhanced by some limited dephasing. To illustrate his point, he referred to a well known experiment in which a beam of light is split as it passes through one beam splitter, and is later rejoined at a second beam splitter. In this situation, only one or two possible detectors beyond the second beam splitter will be activated. However, if one part of the split light beam is measured, either of the detector may subsequently be activated. Plenio thinks that the analogous situation of the activation of extra ‘detectors’ within chlorophyll could allow even more paths to be explored and even greater efficiency of energy transport.

6.)

Quantum entanglement in photosynthetic light harvesting complexes

Mohan Sarovar, & K. Birgitta Whaley
Berkeley Center for Quantum Information and Computation and Dept. of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley
&
Akihito Ishizaki & Graham Fleming
Dept. of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley and Physical Bioscience Division, Berkeley, California

This paper builds on the work of G. Engel and a number of other researchers in exploring quantum coherence and quantum entanglement in photosynthetic systems. The subject is crucial to the whole question of quantum consciousness, since when the chest beating and ridicule is stripped away, the most telling argument against quantum consciousness is that quantum features in the brain would be expected to decohere much too rapidly for them to be relevant to neural processes. Although these studies relate to photosynthetic systems, and most often to photosynthetic bacteria, rather than animal systems, they involve proteins that would be expected to suffer from similar decoherence trajectories to those of brain proteins.

A paper by J. Cai et al (1.) is quoted as showing that quantum entanglement can be generated and destroyed by non-equilibrium effects in noisy non-equilibrium environments. The authors of the present paper ask whether this means that entanglement can be observed in the non-equilibrium environment of living matter. They quote recent ultrafast spectroscopic studies including the G. Engel paper in Nature (2.) and those published in Science by Lee et al (3.) and Collini et al (4.). These studies all demonstrate quantum coherence in non-equilibrium systems, despite a decohering type environment.

Light harvesting complexes (LHCs) are densely packed molecular structures involved in the initial stages of photosynthesis. These complexes capture light, and the resulting excitation energy is transferred to reaction centres, where chemical reactions are initiated. LHCs are particularly efficient at transporting excitation energy in disordered environments. Simulations of the dynamics of particular LHCs predict that quantum entanglement will persist over observable timescales. Entanglement here would mean that there are non-local correlations between spatially separated molecules in the LHCs.

The molecules in the LHCs, referred to as chromophores, are close enough together for considerable dipole coupling leading to coherent interaction over observable timescales. The existence of coherence between molecules in these systems has been recognised for a decade or more (5. & 6.). This condition is seen as the basis for entanglement. Coherence in this area, known as the site basis, is necessary and sufficient for entanglement, and any coherence in the area will lead to entanglement, and can be viewed in experiments as a signature of entanglement.

The authors base part of their study on the description of the dynamics of a molecule in a protein in an LHC. This model indicates the coupling of some pairs of molecules due to proximity and favourable dipole orientation, thus effectively forming dimers. The wave function of the system is delocalised across these dimers.

There are also interactions between the molecules and the rest of the protein which involves decoherence effects. The speed with which this takes effect determines the timescale over which entanglement persists. The authors argue that the standard equation that has been applied in this case may not be valid. Two of the authors have developed an equation that is argued to take better account of the dynamics of chromophores in protein-chromophore complexes.

Using this equation, the interface of the LHC with light energy leads to a rapid increase in entanglement for a short time, followed by a decay punctuated by varying amounts of oscillation. The initial rapid increase reflects the coherent coupling of some parts of the LHC system. This entanglement decreases again as the excitation comes into contact with other parts of the protein. Some of the entanglement seen is not between immediately neighbouring molecules, but between more distant parts of the LHC. Entanglement in LHC is estimated to continue until the excitation reaches the reaction centre. The authors view this as a remarkable conclusion, since it shows that entanglement between several particles can persist in a non-equilibrium condition, despite being in a decoherent environment. The authors stress that the predictions made in these studies are verifiable by existing spectroscopy techniques.

Studies indicate that the observed rates and robustness of excitation energy transfer are a function of inter-site coherence. Entanglement is a by-product of the coherence, and it is not clear that in itself it has a significant role in light harvesting.

However, even if entanglement does not have a role in light harvesting, its existence may be significant for future technological developments. Light harvesting complexes are viewed as forming a possible basis for the design of man-made quantum devices, including quantum computers that would utilise entanglement.

From the point of view of consciousness studies, this and other papers concerned with quantum features in proteins involved in photosynthesis look to sound the death knell for the recent orthodoxy that quantum features could not persist in biological tissues, leaving the road open for the possibility of quantum coherence and entanglement in the brain.

References:-

1.) J. Cai et al (2008) - Dynamic entanglement in oscillating molecules - arXiv:0809.4906

2.) G. Engel et al (2007) - Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems - Nature, 446, 782

3.) H. Lee et al (2007) - Coherence dynamics in photosynthesis: protein protection of excitonic coherence - Science, 316, 1462

4.) E. Collini et al (2007) - Coherent intrachain energy migration in a conjugated polymer at room temperature - Science, 323, 369

5.) R. Monshouwer et al (1997) - Superradiance and exciton delocalisation in bacterial photosynthetic light harvesting systems – J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 7241

6.) H. Van Amerongen et al (2000) - Photosynthetic excitons - World Scientific