Protein&coherence

Summaries and reviews of papers etc. relevant to evidence of quantum coherence/entanglement in protein/biological tissues

1.) Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems - Gregory Engel et al - Best evidence for quantum features in biological tissues

2.) Taming the Quanta - Martin Plenio - Develops the Engel theme further. Plenio thinks that some degree of dephasing of signals within protein, rather than terminating the quantum process, could actually enhance the efficiency of energy transportation.

3.) Quantum entanglement in photosynthetic light harvesting complexes - Mohan Sarovar, & K. Birgitta Whaley - Studies quantum entanglement in photosynthetic proteins

4.) Coherence dynamics in photosynthesis: Protein protection of exitonic coherence - Lee, H. et al - Further evidence for quantum coherence in biological tissues

5.) Coherent intrachain energy migration in a conjugated polymer at room temperature - Elisabetta Collini & Gregory Scholes - Extension of the concept of protein protection developed by Engel et al.

6.) Microtubule super-lattices - Stuart Hameroff - Defends Penrose/Hameroff model against Reimers et al

7.) Excitation of vibrations in microtubules in living cells - Pokorny, J. - Study argues of likelyhood for excitations in microtubules shielded by ion layers and bound water.

8.) Electrical vibrations of yeast cell membrane - M. Cifra & Pokorny et al - Experiments showing oscillation in living cells

9.) Local nanomechanical motion of the wall of yeast cells - Pelling A. et al - Nanomechanical oscillations of cells may involve microtubule motor proteins

10.) Dynamic entanglement in oscillating molecules - Cia et al - Oscillating molecules and environmental noise may reset quantum entanglement in biomolecules.

11.) Conditions for coherent vibrations in the cytoskeleton - J. Pokorny - Discusses Frohlich's ideas for coherence and energy condensation.

12.) Towards quantum superposition of living organisms - Romero-Isart, O.

1.)

Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems - Gregory Engel et al - Best evidence for quantum features in biological tissues

Gregory Engel et al

Dept. of Chemistry, University of California Berkeley

Nature, vol. 446, pp. 782-6, April 2007

This paper points out that photosynthetic complexes are adapted to capture light, and put its energy into long-term storage. This process has normally been described in classical terms, and quantum coherence has been to a good extent ignored in the traditional analysis. However, the possibility of quantum coherence has been predicted, and in this paper the authors describe evidence for long-lived quantum coherence being involved in energy transfer within photosynthetic systems. The wavelike process is thought to account for the efficiency of the sytem, because it allows the sampling of large areas of phase space, in order to find the most efficient path, or to transfering energy to the area in the lowest energy state.

The Engel et al experiment involved electronic spectroscopy to observe the evolution of electronic coherence. Quantum beating was found to last for 660 fs, which was much more than the 250 fs estimated for conventional models. Conventional models had assumed that quantum coherence would be rapidly destroyed, and had therefore not factored it into their models of photosynthetic systems.

By contrast, the authors conclude that long-lived quantum coherence must play an active role in photosynthetic systems. A quantum coherent system allows sampling in order to direct energy to the lowest energy state. The system is viewed as performing a quantum computation, in which it senses many states simultaneously and from these selects the correct answer. This is seen as analogous to Grover's algorithm, allowing both the discovery of the lowest energy state and the transfer of coherence. This is more efficent than any classical search engine. Protein is seen as providing the structure in which coherence can be preserved and at the same time modulating the coherence as a result of the local dielectric environment.

2.)

Taming the Quanta

Martin Plenio

Imperial College London (Lecture to the Royal Society, 14 October 2008)

Martin Plenio’s lecture of October 14 2008 has provided an interesting footnote to the Engel paper reviewed immediately above. In photosynthesis, the chlorophyll molecule is 98% efficient in transporting energy. Energy is absorbed in the form of light. The molecule supports excitation and oscillation of electrons, and allows the exploration of pathways in the molecule. A classical system would only be 60-70% efficient in transporting energy, but the chlorophyll molecule is 98% efficient. The molecule is at 300 degrees Kelvin or room temperature. Given the high temperature, Plenio thinks that there is likely to be some dephasing of the light quanta, but contrary to the normal view that this would be the end of any quantum processing, he considers that the efficiency of energy transportation could actually be enhanced by some limited dephasing. To illustrate his point, he referred to a well known experiment in which a beam of light is split as it passes through one beam splitter, and is later rejoined at a second beam splitter. In this situation, only one or two possible detectors beyond the second beam splitter will be activated. However, if one part of the split light beam is measured, either of the detector may subsequently be activated. Plenio thinks that the analogous situation of the activation of extra ‘detectors’ within chlorophyll could allow even more paths to be explored and even greater efficiency of energy transport.

3.)

Quantum entanglement in photosynthetic light harvesting complexes

Mohan Sarovar, & K. Birgitta Whaley

Berkeley Center for Quantum Information and Computation and Dept. of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley
&
Akihito Ishizaki & Graham Fleming
Dept. of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley and Physical Bioscience Division, Berkeley, California

This paper builds on the work of G. Engel and a number of other researchers in exploring quantum coherence and quantum entanglement in photosynthetic systems. The subject is crucial to the whole question of quantum consciousness, since when the chest beating and ridicule is stripped away, the most telling argument against quantum consciousness is that quantum features in the brain would be expected to decohere much too rapidly for them to be relevant to neural processes. Although these studies relate to photosynthetic systems, and most often to photosynthetic bacteria, rather than animal systems, they involve proteins that would be expected to suffer from similar decoherence trajectories to those of brain proteins.

A paper by J. Cai et al (1.) is quoted as showing that quantum entanglement can be generated and destroyed by non-equilibrium effects in noisy non-equilibrium environments. The authors of the present paper ask whether this means that entanglement can be observed in the non-equilibrium environment of living matter. They quote recent ultrafast spectroscopic studies including the G. Engel paper in Nature (2.) and those published in Science by Lee et al (3.) and Collini et al (4.). These studies all demonstrate quantum coherence in non-equilibrium systems, despite a decohering type environment. P. Light harvesting complexes (LHCs) are densely packed molecular structures involved in the initial stages of photosynthesis. These complexes capture light, and the resulting excitation energy is transferred to reaction centres, where chemical reactions are initiated. LHCs are particularly efficient at transporting excitation energy in disordered environments. Simulations of the dynamics of particular LHCs predict that quantum entanglement will persist over observable timescales. Entanglement here would mean that there are non-local correlations between spatially separated molecules in the LHCs.

Light harvesting complexes (LHCs) are densely packed molecular structures involved in the initial stages of photosynthesis. These complexes capture light, and the resulting excitation energy is transferred to reaction centres, where chemical reactions are initiated. LHCs are particularly efficient at transporting excitation energy in disordered environments. Simulations of the dynamics of particular LHCs predict that quantum entanglement will persist over observable timescales. Entanglement here would mean that there are non-local correlations between spatially separated molecules in the LHCs.

The molecules in the LHCs, referred to as chromophores, are close enough together for considerable dipole coupling leading to coherent interaction over observable timescales. The existence of coherence between molecules in these systems has been recognised for a decade or more (5. & 6.). This condition is seen as the basis for entanglement. Coherence in this area, known as the site basis, is necessary and sufficient for entanglement, and any coherence in the area will lead to entanglement, and can be viewed in experiments as a signature of entanglement.

The authors base part of their study on the description of the dynamics of a molecule in a protein in an LHC. This model indicates the coupling of some pairs of molecules due to proximity and favourable dipole orientation, thus effectively forming dimers. The wave function of the system is delocalised across these dimers.

Using this equation, the interface of the LHC with light energy leads to a rapid increase in entanglement for a short time, followed by a decay punctuated by varying amounts of oscillation. The initial rapid increase reflects the coherent coupling of some parts of the LHC system. This entanglement decreases again as the excitation comes into contact with other parts of the protein. Some of the entanglement seen is not between immediately neighbouring molecules, but between more distant parts of the LHC. Entanglement in LHC is estimated to continue until the excitation reaches the reaction centre. The authors view this as a remarkable conclusion, since it shows that entanglement between several particles can persist in a non-equilibrium condition, despite being in a decoherent environment. The authors stress that the predictions made in these studies are verifiable by existing spectroscopy techniques.

Studies indicate that the observed rates and robustness of excitation energy transfer are a function of inter-site coherence. Entanglement is a by-product of the coherence, and it is not clear that in itself it has a significant role in light harvesting. P. However, even if entanglement does not have a role in light harvesting, its existence may be significant for future technological developments. Light harvesting complexes are viewed as forming a possible basis for the design of man-made quantum devices, including quantum computers that would utilise entanglement.

From the point of view of consciousness studies, this and other papers concerned with quantum features in proteins involved in photosynthesis look to sound the death knell for the recent orthodoxy that quantum features could not persist in biological tissues, leaving the road open for the possibility of quantum coherence and entanglement in the brain.

References:-

1.) J. Cai et al (2008) - Dynamic entanglement in oscillating molecules - arXiv:0809.4906

2.) G. Engel et al (2007) - Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic systems - Nature, 446, 782

3.) H. Lee et al (2007) - Coherence dynamics in photosynthesis: protein protection of excitonic coherence - Science, 316, 1462

4.) E. Collini et al (2007) - Coherent intrachain energy migration in a conjugated polymer at room temperature - Science, 323, 369

5.) R. Monshouwer et al (1997) - Superradiance and exciton delocalisation in bacterial photosynthetic light harvesting systems – J. Phys. Chem. B, 101, 7241

6.) H. Van Amerongen et al (2000) - Photosynthetic excitons - World Scientific

4.) Coherence dynamics in photosynthesis: Protein protection of excitonic coherence

Lee, H., Cheng, Y. & Fleming, R.

Dept. of Chemistry, University of Berkeley California & Lawrence Berkeley National Library

Science, 316, 1462

Studies by the authors have demonstrated long-lasting coherence between excited states in photosynthetic bacteria. This can only be explained by strong correlations between chromophore molecules. The experimental results show that protein environments protect coherence in photosynthetic complexes, allow excitations to move coherently in space, and enable very efficient light energy harvesting in photosynthesis.

The solar energy harvesting found in photosynthesis relies on a first stage involving complex molecular machinery. Recent spectroscopy and theoretical modelling has started to show that electronic excitonic states may impact energy transfer in photosynthetic systems. G. Engel et al (1.) have demonstrated long-lived coherence between excitonic states, and energy transfer based on wavelike coherent motion in photosynthetic complexes. The authors designed experiments to study coherence between excited states, and these demonstrated that the protein environment protected coherence, and helped to optimise energy transfer in photosynthetic complexes.

One experiment looked at two chromophore molecules. The system provided near unity efficiency of energy transfer, and also demonstrates energy transfer between the chromophores. In the experiment, the exciton bands of the two chromophores became coherent. The experiment also shows that the time for dephasing of these molecules is substantially longer than would have been traditionally estimated. The traditional approach in particular ignored the coherence between donor and acceptor states. The longer time to dephasing of one as compared to the other of the experimental chromophores was taken to indicate a strong correlation of the energy fluctuations of the two molecules. This meant that the two molecules were embedded in the same protein environment. The authors argue that the traditional view that each molecule in a photosynthetic complex can be viewed independently cannot be sustained.

The adaptive benefit of long-lived coherence lies in the very efficient search for the electron donor. Thus the protein protection of coherence by means of correlated fluctuations produces the adaptive benefit of substantially enhanced energy transfer efficiency. The authors think it is too early to say that correlated fluctuations and consequent protection of electronic coherence is a general feature of photosynthetic complexes, but it is felt that the eventual description will certainly need to take account of coherence.

Reference:-

G.S. Engel et al - Nature, 446, 782 (2007)

5.)

Coherent intrachain energy migration in a conjugated polymer at a room temperature

Elisabetta Collini and Gregory Scholes

Dept. of Chemistry/Instit of Optical Sciences/Centre for Quantum Information and Control, University of Toronto

Science, 323, 369

This is another in a series of recent studies indicating the existence of quantum coherence in proteins at high or even room temperature. In the context of the discussions on this site, this is mainly important in terms of undermining the principle argument against quantum consciousness, which is the expected rapid decoherence in brain proteins.

The authors conducted an experiment to observe quantum coherence dynamics in relation to electronic energy transfer. The experiment examined polymer samples with different chain conformations at room temperature, and recorded intrachain, but not interchain, coherent electronic energy transfer. It is pointed out that natural photosynthetic proteins and artificial polymers organise light absorbing molecules (chromophores) to channel photon energy. The excitation energy from the absorbed light can be shared quantum mechanically among the chromophores, depending on how the chromophores communicate.

Where this happens, electronic coupling predominates over the tendency towards quantum decoherence, (loss of coherence due to interaction with the environment), and what is described as a kind of standing wave connects donor and acceptor paths, and the evolution of the system is entangled in a single quantum state. P. Within chains of polymers there can be conformational subunits 2 to 12 repeat units long, which are primary absorbing units or chromophores. Neighbouring chromophores along the backbone of a polymer have quite a strong electronic coupling, and electronic transfer between these is coherent at room temperature. These findings are consistent with observations of the protection of quantum coherence by Engel et al and Lee at al (1.&2.) that showed that fluctuations at different chromophore sites can preserve electronic coherence over timescales substantially longer than the normal decoherence time.

In summary, the authors say that quantum based transport of energy occurs along linked polymer chains. Chemical bonds between chromophores are stated to play an important role in allowing quantum effects. This is seen as an extension of the concept of protein protected coherences proposed by the Engel and Lee experiments.

References:-

(1.) G.S. Engel et al (2007) - Nature, 446, 782

(2.) H. Lee et al (2007) - Science, 316, 1462

6.)

Microtubule super-lattices (reply to Reimers et al)

Stuart Hameroff

University of Arizona

In the 1960s and 1970s Frohlich (1. Frohlich, 1968) proposed the possibility of Bose-Einstein condensation (particles locked in phase as a single quantum object) in certain biomolecules. In a recent papers (2. Reimers et al, 2009) the authors describe three types of Frohlich condensation , weak, strong and coherent. They estimate that strong and coherent condensation are not feasible in microtubules, but that weak condensation is feasible. They state that (3. Pokorny, 2004) has experimentally demonstrated weak Frohlich condensation in microtubules. Reimers et al claim that the Penrose/Hameroff quantum consciousness model requires strong or coherent condensation, and that the model can therefore be refuted.

Hameroff takes issue with Reimers on two counts. Firstly, he suggests that weak condensation may be able to support the Penrose/Hameroff model, and secondly, he denies Reimers claim that strong or coherent condensation is not feasible in microtubules. He criticises Reimers et al for basing their study on just a linear chain of tubulin oscillators. Microtubules are cylindrical lattices, rather than one dimensional chains or flat two dimensional lattices that Reimers et al are claimed to have pre-supposed.

A 2006 study (4. Brangwynne et al, 2006) demonstrates how microtubules can bear the loads within cells because of lateral reinforcement. The relatively rigid microtubules are compressed by the contractile actin and other filaments to form a network of structural support for the cell. Hameroff claims that this compression of microtubules within living cells suits them to vibrational resonances. He further claims that this along with a geometry that ensures that signals within the microtubule lattice interact makes it a substantial error to compare a free standing chain or lattice to the conditions prevailing in microtubules.

Hameroff also refers back to the work of (5. Samsonovich et al, 1992). This paper considered Frohlich coherence in a microtubule. The resonance of phonon energy was distributed on a microtubule lattice in periodic patterns, or super-lattices overlying the microtubule lattice. Some of such patterns match the experimentally observed locations of the attachment points of microtubule associated proteins (MAPs); these latter control the architecture and function of the cells. Hameroff claims that the regularity of these super-lattices on microtubules is difficult to explain except by non-local effects.

The Reimers et al paper seems to bear a resemblance to the many earlier refutations of the Penrose/Hameroff model that have subsequently turned out to be based on rather simplistic approaches to a complex question. However, it should be expected that the Reimers paper like the earlier (6. Tegmark, 2000) paper will be widely quoted and praised by the mainstream consciousness community. That said it is notable that Reimers et al appear to concede the main plank of the traditional argument against quantum consciousness, which is that quantum features are not possible in brain protein by admitting that some condensates are feasible. This retreat may have come in the face of Engel et al's evidence for quantum coherence in photosynthetic proteins.

References:-

1.) Frohlich, H. (1968) - Long-range coherence and energy storage in biological systems - International Journal of Quantum Chemistry 2, 641-649

2.) Reimers et al, (2009) - Weak, strong and coherent Frohlich condensation - Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences

3.) Pokorny, J. (2004) - Excitations of vibrations in microtubules in living cells - Bioelectrochemistry, 63, 321-6

4.) Brangwynne et al (2006) - Microtubules can bear enhanced compressive loads - Journal of Cell Biology, 173, 733-41

5.) Samsonovich, A., Scott, A.. & Hameroff, S. (1992) - Transitions in microtubules: Implications for intracellular information processing - Nanobiology, 1, 457-68

6.) Tegmark, M. (2000) - The importance of quantum decoherence in brain processes - Physica Rev E, 61, 4194-4206

Collini, E. & Scholes, G. (2009) - Excitons surf along conjugated polymer chains - Science, 323, 369-73

Engel, G. et al, (2007) - Evidence for wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in photosynthetic bacteria - Nature, 446, 782-6

7.)

Excitation of vibrations in microtubules in living cells

J. Pokorny

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

Bioelectrochemistry, 63, (2004), pp. 321-6

Pokorny's paper is regarded as favourable to the Penrose/Hameroff model in that it argues that an ion layer and bound water should allow energy created inside microtubules to drive excitations. Such a mechanism of excitation in microtubules is central to Hameroff's part of the Penrose/Hameroff quantum consciousness model, but has been widely rejected as impossible in the conditions of biological cells.

The paper starts by stating that the polar (opposite electric charge) character of biological objects suggests that there are longitudinal oscillations. The author's calculation show that some forms of such energy are not thermalised, but are instead condensed into a pattern of oscillations. In this context, the structure of the cell's cytoskeleton, which is based on microtubules, is stated to satisfy the basic requirements for an oscillating electric field (1. Pokorny, J, 1999). Later work by the author (2. Pokorny, J, 2003) confirmed the possibility of oscillations despite the existence of surrounding water.

The situation at the surface of the microtubules is the central theme of this paper. A study by Foster and Baish (2000) claimed to show that the damping of oscillations by surrounding water made it impossible for such vibrations to survive in microtubules. The author criticises their approach for failing to take account of an ionic charge layer or cylindrical envelope around the microtubule. It is thought likley that there is a similar charge layer between the inner wall of the microtubule and the hollow cavity in the centre, which may also be filled with cytosol. The ions are surrounded by bounded molecules, and electrically charged proteins may also be involved. A slip layer forms between the microtubule and the surrounding cytosol, because microtubules are easily deformed at even low stress.

Taking the cytosol as a whole, it is thought that the damping effects of water on oscillation (viscosity) is not much different from ordinary water, but that near surfaces, such as the surfaces of microtubules, there may be layers of ordered water as much as 200 nm thick. The effects of the ion layer and bound water would be to reduce viscosity, and thus promote the survival of excitations within the microtubule. Losses to viscosity in the inner cavity of the microtubule might be particularly low, as it is thought that all the water in this area could be ordered.

The microtubules are supplied with energy by the hydrolysis of guanosine triphosphate (GTP) to diphosphate (GDP), and a considerable amount of this energy is stored in the microtubule. This may serve to increase tension in the microtubule, and to excite coherent waves. Polarisation waves may arise in the direction of the microtubule axis, and it is suggested that there may be a high intensity electric field near the outer surface of the microtubule and also near the surface next to the internal cavity.

The author argues for an overall picture of energy supply and the possibility of excitation. Energy is generated at one end of the microtubule, and this dominant near zone electrical component can be involved in the orientation of macromolecules and the direction of polymer structures and polymerisation. The amount of the energy supply is deemed sufficient for excitation, even after taking account of losses as a result of being immersed in liquid.

The ideas put forward in this paper were experimentally tested by (3. Pokorny, J. et al, 2001). In this experiment recorded electromagnetic emissions from cells were regarded as promising, although more accurate tests would be needed to show whether the emissions came from microtubules rather than other parts of the cell.

References:-

1.) Pokorny, J. - Conditions for coherent vibrations in cytoskeletons - Bioenergy. 48, (1999), pp. 267-71

2.) Pokorny, J. - Viscous effects on polar vibrations in microtubules - Biol. Med., 22, (2003), pp. 15-19

3.) Pokorny, J. et al - Electromagnetic activity of yeast cells - Electromagnetobiology, 20, (2001), pp. 371-96

8.)

Electric vibrations of yeast cell membrane

M. Cifra & J. Pokorny et al

Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic and Czech Technical University

Piers Online, vol. 3, No. 8, 2007

The paper starts by referring to Frohlich's foundational proposal (1. Frohlich, 1968) that there could be electrically polar longitudinal vibrations in biological systems, generating an internal electromagnetic field. This hypothesis is frequently mentioned in quantum consciousness discussions, but until the last few years, it did not appear to have been much followed up in terms of experimental studies.

This paper refers to experiments by Pelling et al (2 & 3. Pelling et al, 2004 & 2005). Studies with an atomic force microscope detected oscillations in yeast cells. Oscillations at a single frequency have been detected on the yeast cell wall and multiple frequencies elsewhere. Both types of oscillation ceased after the addition of a metabolic inhibitor, which suggested to the experimenters that the oscillation was based on cellular metabolism.

The authors of this paper propose three ways by which the energy to drive this oscillation could be generated. 1.) Release of energy stored in microtubules by hydrolysis of guanosine triphosphate to diphosphate. 2.) Motor proteins 'crawling' along microtubules. 3.) Vibrational energy released from mitochondria. The authors suggest that microtubules can be considered as vibrating chains of dipoles that generate an oscillating electrical field. The cytoskeleton of the cells comprises microtubules, microtubule associated proteins, and actin filaments. The authors point out that actin flaments are polar structures in the same way as microtubules and produce energy through the hydrolysis of ATP, which is analogous to energy production found in microtubules.

The authors give a detailed description of their experimental set up. The results of preliminary measurements showed electrical oscillations of yeast cells in the 1280-1400 Hz bandwidth. These findings are stated to be consistent with the original Frohlich postulate of electrical polar longitudinal vibrations in biological systems. The authors acknowledge some limitations on experimental accuracy, but nevertheless go on to say that the existence of such an internal magnetic field in living cells has far reaching implications for the structural organisation of organisms. It is clear that this a tranche of experiments in recent years are chipping away at the mainstream stance towards microtubules in particular and quantum features in living tissue in general

References:-

1.) Frohlich, H. - Bose condensation of strongly excited logitudinal electric modes - Phys. Letters Ser. A., vol 26, (1968), pp. 402-3

2.) Pelling, A. et al - Local nanomechanical motion of the cell wall - Science, vol. 305, pp. 1147-50

3.) Pelling, A. et al - Time dependency of the frequency and amplitude of the local nanomechanical motion of yeast - Nanomedicine, vol. 1, (2005), pp. 178-83

Jeline, F. & Pokorny, J. et al - Measurement of eelctromagnetic activity of yeast cells - Radioengineering, vol, 16, No. 1, (2007), pp. 36-9

9.)

Local nanomechanical motion of the walls of yeast cells

Pelling, A. et al

Science, vol. 305, (2004), pp. 1147-50

Introduction: This paper uses the results of experiments with yeast cells to suggest that motor proteins, possibly including microtubule motor proteins, are involved with observed nanomechanical oscillations in these yeast cells. The authors consider that their work has revealed a new nanomechanicla aspect of cells.

The paper starts by stating that biological processes inside the living cell rely on the nanomechanical properties of cellular substructures and of the cell membrane itself. These can be studied by means of atomic force microscopes that have shown the existence of periodic nanomechanical processes in yeast cells. In an experiment with yeast cells the motion of the cell body was oscillatory. The observed frequencies of the oscillation at given temperatures were similar to within 5% in different cells.

The paper discusses whether the mechanism for these oscillations is wholly or partly based on random Brownian motion, or whether it is a metabolic process. Yeast cells were treated with sodium azide, a metabolic inhibitor that switches off ATP energy production in mitochondria. Oscillatory behaviour was not observed in those cells that had been treated with sodium azide. The dependence on both temperature and metabolic state is taken by the experimenters to indicate that the nanomechanical motion is biologically driven.

The energy involved in this is consistent with the involvement of motor proteins, including the microtubule motor proteins, kinesin and dynein. Operating speeds for these proteins are comparable with those for the nanomechanical measurements that the experimenters have observed in yeast cells. The authors observations suggest that many motor proteins are involved in concerted action to produce the observed oscillations. Spontaneous driven oscillations have been observed in muscle and auditory cells, where molecular motions are coupled to the environment by microtubules or other cytoskeletal filaments. The existence of such concerted motor protein is taken to support the authors' argument that metabolically driven nanomechanical activity occurs in yeast cells.

It is suggested that the observed motion may be part of a communication path or pumping mechanism to supplement passive diffusion of nutrients, or to drive the transport of chemicals across the cell wall. More refined methods are needed to study mammalian cells, but the authors think that their findings have revealed a new nanomechanical aspect to cells.

10.)

Dynamic entanglement in oscillating molecules

Cia, J. et al - Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Innsbruck

arXiv:0809.4906v1 [quantum-ph] 29 Sep. 2009

INTRODUCTION: The authors' model suggests that although static entanglement could not persist in biological conditions, the combination of molecular oscillation and environmental noise could result in the repeated resetting of quantum entanglement. Such a possibility is important for some models of quantum consciousness and notably for the Penrose/Hameroff model.

The authors emphasise the difference between solid state physics and biology, in which movement within an organism has to be taken into account. In the case of protein, the key building block of organisms, its functioning requires conformational changes, as in the folding of protein. These functions involve time-dependent quantum interactions, including those of hydrogen bonds, that are switched on and off as the protein molecule changes its shape. These changes are essential for the biological functions of the proteins. These interactions are subject to the considerable noise from the fluctuations of surrounding dipole fields, and have therefore traditionally been dealt with in terms of classical physics. The authors think that for adequate results, it may be necessary to treat these interactions quantum mechanically

In particular, their model suggests that while while a static entanglement could not survive in the conditions of the brain, it might be possible for fresh entanglements to be generated. The effect of the environment on the motion of biomolecules is complex, and not yet fully understood. According to the authors' calculations, entanglement can persistently recur in an oscillating molecule, even if the environment is too hot for static entanglement. The oscillation of the molecule combined with the noise of the environment is suggested to repeatedly reset entanglement. This non-equilibrium quantum system is driven by oscillatory motion that prevents it from reaching thermal equilibrium, with environmental noise and driven motion playing a constructive role as a reset mechanism. It is stressed that the oscillating molecule is not in thermal equilibrium, and that it absorbs heat from the environment. The authors claim that their model could be simulated by means of trapped ions.

11.)

Conditions for coherent vibrations in the cytoskeleton

J. Pokorny, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic

Bioelectrochemistry and Bioenergetics (1999)

INTRODUCTION: Prokorny suggests that the polarity of vibrational structures in organic matter can lead to coherent states and energy condensation. Microtubules are suggested to satisfy this requirement.

Pokorny says that mechanisms governing the high degree of organisation in living organisms are largely unknown. The type of spatial order seen with inorganic crystalline substances is not apparent in organic matter, such as microtubules and actin filaments, and it is generally agreed that the self assembly and ordering of living matter is based on mechanisms peculiar to biological systems.

Biological matter has polar properties suggesting that there are electromagnetic aspects to its organisation. Pokorny discusses at some length proposals by Frohlich, who postulated that long-range quantum mechanical phase correlations could exist in biological systems. His ideas were based on three concepts, the polar nature of biological structures, energy supply to the system, and energy transfer between oscillators within the system. Some modes of motion could become strongly excited, and remain far from thermal equilibrium. The polar nature of biological objects made it likely that this would lead to longitudinal oscillations. His calculations suggested that these processes could produce a form of of quantum coherence capable of supporting dissapationless transfer of energy similar to that seen in superconductivity.

Pokorny argues that microtubules have the right structure to generate this type of energy. The tubulin sub-components are electrical dipoles, and the microtubules as a whole are polar structures, with positive and negative ends. Vibrations in such a polar system give rise to an electromagnetic field. Energy is exchanged between the vibrating structure and the region around it.

It is suggested that some of the energy involved in conformational changes in the tubulin proteins of microtubules could be transformed into vibrational energy. The altered forces between the protein subunits of the microtubule would supply energy to the whole microtubule lattice. The energy thus stored in the microtubule can do work in the cell, and Pokorny considers it possible that polarisation waves may become coherent on the basis of Frohlich's calculations. It is thought possible that polar vibrations do work in the vicinity of the microtubule. Pokorny further suggests that the electromagnetic activity observed in living cells such as yeast cells may be relevant to the activities in microtubules.

12.)

Towards quantum superposition of living organisms

Romero-Isart, O. et al

Max Planck Institute, ICFO & ICREA

New Journal of Physics, 12, (2010) 033015 (16pp) doi:10.1088/1367-2630/12/3/033015

Recent research has shown that it is possible to create superpositions of collections of photons. This has given rise to speculation as to what the size limit to such collections might be, and whether it might even be possible to put a small organism such as a virus into superposition. Technical progress suggests that it will be possible to increase the size of the collections put into superposition. Pieces of technology such as micro-mirrors or cantilevers may be put into superposition, as could micro-organisms such as viruses. Experiments depend on an optical cavity with a mechanical oscillator, where the experimenter attempts to reduce the mechanical object to its ground state. Achievement of this is expected to open up the possibility of more fundamental and applied experiments, including those with micro-organisms.

The authors consider experiments on micro-organisms to be feasible because they behave as dielectric objects, which have been used in other forms of these experiments, some micro-organisms are resistant to the vacuum conditions of these experiments, and the sizes of some organisms such as spores and viruses is comparable to the wavelengths involved in these experiments. The authors anticipate that such experiments could address the role of life and consciousness in quantum mechanics.

Conclusion: It is not immediately easy to see where this work is leading in terms of the understanding of consciousness. Most theories of quantum consciousness look at the possibility of consciousness deriving from quantum states within complex organisms, whereas here we have the potential for whole organisms to be put into superposition. There may be some connection to the idea that the surprising capabilities of micro-organisms depend on quantum computing, but even here the mechanisms proposed are seen as a detailed part of the internal structure.