QBD 2

The phonons are boson particles, which can be put into the same state with the same quantum numbers, such as the same energy and momentum. Bosons are massless, and therefore their ground state or lowest energy state is a zero energy state. A large number of phonons can be gathered in the lowest energy state without changing the amount of energy. It will remain the system ground state, but with a large number of phonons condensed in it. As they have the same quantum number they will be coherently condensed in the ground state. This type of structure is only possible at the quantum level, and could not exist at the classical level. Coherent condensation may arise in coherent domains. These domains may later merge into large coherent regions with ordered states. In the crystal, the atoms are trapped in the net of the long-range correlation. The laser is an example of a macroscopic quantum system.

Stable ordering involves long-range correlations, and this is not described by quantum mechanics but only by quantum field theory. QM is not adequate to describe the structure of the crystal, this ca only be done by QFT. The collapse of the wave function is seen as the limit of the application of QM, beyond which lies classical physics. But Vitellio argues that this can also be the boundary between applying QM and QFT. Vitellio admits that classical non-linear systems have been an area of important progress in recent decades, but he points out that there is no non-linear theory of crystals or superconductors. These can only be described by QFT, which he regards as the basis of many classically behaving systems. He thinks that the ordering of the brain and other living tissue, with interlocked chemical reactions could be governed by similar rules to the ordering of crystals. Living systems are characterised not only by ordering, but by plasticity, or the ability to change in response to conditions. This is one of its main distinctions from inert matter.

The author looks at the problem of the relationship in any large system between microscopic components and macroscopic variables. In the example of the crystal the atoms etc. are the micoscopic components, whose interactions can be understood in terms of quantum mechanics. The macroscopic variables are properties of the crystal such as density, stiffness and conductivity. These cannot be created from a pile of atoms, but require there to be some additional relationship between the atoms. The author believes that the ordering of living tissues derives from the order generated by QFT.

The creation of order is related to a lack of certain symmetry, the replacement of the ability to move or rotate freely, by the requirement to move in discreet integer jumps in a lattice, or the requirement for magnetic moments to point in a particular direction. Order can be said to rise from the breaking of symmetry, because order is the possibility to distinguish one thing from another, while symmetry means that things are indistinguishable from one another.
 
In a crystal, the order distinguishes special points where atoms are found. When the lattice or solid becomes a gas, the symmetry returns and an atom might be found at any point. In a magnet, there is a distinction between the ordering direction and any other direction. Information is also associated with ordering. Where there are observable ordered patterns, the symmetry of the dynamical equations is broken, so that the dynamical equations can describe different types of order.

The Goldstone theorem in QFT states that when the symmetry of the ground state is broken a massless boson is generated, known as the Goldstone particle. The Goldstone stems from the breakdown of the symmetry and it is the carrier of the ordering information. A Goldstone is present in both a crystal lattice and a magnet. The Goldstone’s are bosons. This means that many of them can occupy the same state, or condense into the same state. The existence of this condensation is temperature dependent. Above a certain temperature condensation the condensation disappears and symmetry is restored.

The condensation state is not possible for fermions, which are massive particles such as electrons. For instance, electrons in the same electron shell must differ in some quantum number such as their spin, and this rule governs the filling of electron shells and thence the periodic table.

The condensate bosons are able to be in phase, as in lasers, where photons are in phase and due to this lasers and other condensate systems can behave as a macroscopic quantum system., which in turn moves the scale up from micro to macro.

The Fröhlich model for living tissue involves Bose condensation. coherence and non-linearity In 1968 Fröhlich proposed that phase correlations was descisive in the description of biological tissues. Vitellio admits, however, that, such proposals are still in need of a lot of experimental work.

Both biomolecules and water molecules have electric dipoles. Fröhlich suggested that the electrical potential of the cell membrane was the macroscopic observable of an underlying degree of order. This was taken to mean that the oscillation of the electrical dipoles were in phase and coherent. His studies claim to show that when such oscillating charges are in a thermal bath or other energy source, a large number of quanta may become condensed into a single state. This involves long range correlations among dipoles.

Studies are claimed to have shown that metabolic activity is affected by non-ionising and non-thermalising radiation. (Adey, 1981&8), (Smith, 1988), (Jelinek et al, 1999) (Pokorny, Fiala & Vacek, 1991).^(4-8) Some processes such as blood coagulation appear to require interactions that are beyond the range of chemical forces. Interaction between cells of the same type may promote cooperative activity in tissue formation. Vitellio quotes quite a number of studies that appear to lend support to the dynamical scheme. These involve radiation effects on cell growth, (Grundler & Kielmann, 1983), (Grundler et al, 1988), (Grundler & Kaiser, 1992) and (Pohl, 1988) ^(9-11) electromagnetic fields and stress response (Gutzeit, 2000), ⁽¹²⁾ non-thermal effects of microwaves (Belyyaev, 2000), ⁽¹³⁾ dynamical repsonse to external stimuli (Kaiser, 1988), ⁽¹⁴⁾ non-linear tunneling (Huve, Bond & Toth, 1984) ⁽¹⁵⁾, coherent nuclear motion in membrane proteins (Vos et al, 1993) ⁽¹⁶⁾, weak radiation fields and biological systems (Li et al, 1983), (Popp, 1986), (Jerman et al, 1996) ^(17-19), propagation of coherent waves in ordered molecular monolayers (Huth, Gutman & Vitellio, 1989), (Christiansen, Pagano & Vitiello, 1991) ^(20-21).

Living organisms are seen as being fragile in the sense that localised damage at a microspopic level may result in serious damage to the organism. Most of the components of living matter carry an electric dipole. In QFT these are described by quantum fields. Living tissue is seen as chains of macromolecules weakly bound together and embedded in water.

Experimental evidence is claimed to show net polarisation of water surrounding protein molecules. (Hasted, 1988) (Celaschi & Mascarenhas, 1975 & 1977) ^(22-23)  Vitiello thinks that it is important to understand how energy flows within living systems. Energy uptake by the system is at particular times and sites by means of chemical reactions.

Vitiello points out that there are plentiful sources with the potential to generate electromagnetic fields in the brain including biomolecular chains and ions. The electromagnetic fields may or may not penetrate and destroy the separate correlated long-range fields. At a certain level, the electromagnetic field could penetrate, but would be confined inside tubes, such as those in the cytoskeleton. In this case coherence would be preserved, but it would be destroyed inside the filament. The figure computed for the width of such a tube is similar to the width of the hollow core of a microtubule. In  fact, the author thinks that the combination of the electromagetic field and ordered water close to protein molecules may be the basis for the formation of the cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton is basic to metabolic activity, but at present the dynamical behaviour of the cytoskeleton remains a puzzle for biochemistry. Most of the chemical activity in a cell occurs in the microtubules, and Vitiello surmises that the cytoskeleton could be at the base of the time ordering of chemical reactions.

The book goes onto discuss the arguements regarding the impact of thermal effects on coherence.Vitiello says that he is talking of oscillations of only 10-14 seconds that are much shorter than the period required  for decoherence (Del Giudice, Preparata and Vitiello, 1988b) ⁽²²⁾ In addition, he argues that small forces or couplings may generate relatively robust coherence. He also argues that ordered water around protein molecules may act as a cage to shield the protein from the environmental temperature. The temperature of the protein would thus lower than that of the thermal bath outside the ordered water.

It is stressed again that the long-range correlation in the brain must be robust to withstand the amount of electrochemical activity there. The basic quantum variables are referred to as corticons, and the model is driven by the interaction between corticon fields. The interaction between the classical electrochemical level and the quantum level is seen as the interaction between between two macroscopic systems.
 
Unfortunately, the author does not attempt suggestions as to how the fields might couple. While it would be unreasonable to expect a degree of certainty at this stage, the lack of conjectures is symptomatic of the rather confused and undeveloped nature of the theory. However, Vitiello says that Jibu & Yasue think that the corticons are quanta of the electrical dipole field described by Fröhlich. The electrical dipole quanta on the protein filaments would couple with the quanta of the elctrical dipole field of the water, in which the protein filaments are embedded. This could involve a breakdown of the symmetry of the water, and hence presumably the ordering of water. The dipole waves on the protein filaments are suggested as proprogating both inside and outside the cell membrane. The quanta of these waves propagating over the protein filament network are defined as being the corticons.. The water dipole quanta are suggested to be coupled to these corticons. The water dipoles are then correlated over long distances. The bosons of the water dipole field are described as symmetrons. These are produced by the interaction with the corticons. These act as information carriers between the corticons. This is seen as an intracellular quantum signal. Jibu, Yasue and Hagan (1997)⁽²⁴⁾ suggest that microscopic sources generate infrared light and that this is the energy that generates lasering in coherent water surrounding the cell.

The final section on consciousness is particularly disappointing, as it does not suggest any way in which what a quantum information system as described in the book could be related to consciounsess as such any more than any other physical process. There is no attempt to define either a fundamental or emerging property or process that could account for consciousness.
 
However, the final section on My Double, Myself is interesting in terms of the possible functioning of the brain. It  points to the ancient Vedic tradition of consciousness flowing between two poles, the Self and the processes of the universe. This relates to the title of the book. Consciousness is seen as both emerging from the dynamics of the brain, and also rooted in the exchange between the self and the external universe. Consciousness is seen as created through the opening of the self to the external world. The existence of the external world is necessary for the build up of the subjective representation of this external world. Freeman (1997) ⁽²³⁾ thinks that the brain processes meanings rather than information, because information by itself does not involve analysis let alone understanding.. Thus information is necessary but not sufficient for understanding. Freeman views meanings as relating to intentions.

The author does discuss Tegmark’s criticism of quantum consciousness in terms of likeley rapid decoherence in the conditions of the brain. Vitiello does touch on the possibility of screening of protein surfaces by ordered water,  but his main reply is that decoherence is a problem for quantum mechanics and does not apply to field theory.

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